Reshaping a Broken World
Historian Erez Manela speaks with host Brian Balogh about President Woodrow Wilson’s attempts to help build a new Europe, and how his philosophy has shaped U.S. foreign policy for nearly a century.
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BRIAN: One of the most significant things to rise out of the ashes of World War I was the League of Nations. That was an international organization that in many ways prefigured the United Nations. Itresulted largely from the efforts of Woodrow Wilson, who, as Harvard historian Erez Manela says, feltthe old world order– one where nations supposedly balanced each other’s power as a means ofensuring peace– just wasn’t working.
EREZ MANELA: Wilson sees the war as evidence that the balance of power arrangement has failedspectacularly, and cannot be resuscitated. There cannot, in his view, be a new order that is again basedon balance of power. So then the question becomes for him, what is the alternative to balance ofpower? And the alternative that he comes up, with an institutional form, takes the form in his mind ofthe League of Nations.
And I think that Wilson has in mind a fairly straightforward parallel between the League of Nations as hesees it, and the US Constitution as it was formed in the late 18th century. Because keep in mind that–and Wilson knows this well– at the time of the Constitutional Convention, the several states that theConstitution was going to bring together were sovereign international entities.
BRIAN: Describe Wilson’s vision of collective security through the League of Nations when he firstimagined it, and tell me how that changed as a result of his war experience.
EREZ MANELA: Well, the issue that is often focused on when we think about collective security, and thepoint that received the most critique in the debate in 1919 and after, is the military commitment. That is,the sense that the collective security arrangements committed United States to military involvement inEurope or elsewhere, wherever conflict was going to break out. And actually, Wilson was very, veryclear, and he stated this numerous times explicitly, that the military intervention was going to be the verylast resort– only if everything else has failed.
And everything else meant two things that were to come before military intervention. One was what hecalled world opinion– his sense that once you get countries agreeing to be members, to join up, youwill get countries and leaders starting to feel that they’re compelled– they have an interest, in a sense.Now if that wasn’t going to work, if some country was going to take aggressive action despite thesekinds of shared understandings, then the next stage was going to be economic sanctions. But here thiswas going to be a multilateral process.
So this is the innovation. The innovation is it wasn’t simply going to be, one belligerent was going to putthe other belligerent under blockade. It was going to be that the world community, in a sense, wasgoing to agree through the League of Nations to put an aggressive nation under economic sanctions.So that was going to be the next stage, and he was very clear that was an important stage.
BRIAN: So buy-in from the international community was one of the real key innovations that Wilson waspursuing.
EREZ MANELA: Absolutely. And I think– I mean, look, international organizations had been in place forawhile. And obviously the clearest precedent here is the Concert of Europe that was put in place afterthe Napoleonic Wars, after 1815. But for Wilson, actually, it wasn’t a very good precedent because theConcert only took into account the views of the great powers. And Wilson actually strongly believed inthis concept of the equality of nations– that the small nations, as they were called at the time, had to beinvolved in this. And in fact, he perceived in a sense the small nations operating as a kind of brake onthe ambitions of the great powers.
BRIAN: How did the League of Nations that actually emerged out of the Treaty of Versailles– how didthat differ from Wilson’s original conception?
EREZ MANELA: Yeah, well, that that’s actually a really important question, because one thing that’soften missed in the history is that the League of Nations covenant that emerged out of Versailles was avery different creature from what Wilson had envisioned. And I think the best example of this is throughthe evolution of what’s known as Article 10, that guaranteed the security and territorial integrity of thenations– members of the League– and committed the other members to intervening in various ways.Because what Wilson said in that draft was, he started off by saying, yes the League guarantees thesecurity and territorial integrity of the member states.
But then there was a very important and extended except. And he said, except in such circumstances–and I’m paraphrasing– except in such circumstances where changes in racial conditions, andeconomic conditions, and the desires of the peoples concerned, will necessitate changes in borderspursuant to the principle of self-determination. And he said that in such cases, the League of Nationscould, by a 75% or a 3/4 majority, could actually effect the redrawing of borders– of internationalborders.
So he really actually wanted to build into the League a mechanism for what can only be described as– Isuppose– a form of world government
BRIAN: Right. This is really pretty radical stuff.
EREZ MANELA: It is quite radical stuff. Now I want to emphasize, Wilson did not come by this radicalidea easily. He came by it because by the end of the war he was convinced that the old order was sobroken, and so dangerous, that something radical had to be done, to put together an internationalsystem that would work.
BRIAN: It wasn’t exactly what Wilson envisioned, but we do get a League of Nations, sans the UnitedStates. Did it accomplish what Wilson thought it would?
EREZ MANELA: Well, obviously it didn’t. It didn’t even come close. First of all, the League covenant thatemerges from the negotiations in Versailles is quite different from what Wilson had in mind initially. It’s tohis mind a watered down version. He still defends it. He still wants the United States to join it, and that’sbecause he has an evolutionary view of such institutions.
He thinks, as long as we can put in place something– even something very imperfect– we have achance of it evolving in the right direction, over time. Then the other problem is that the United StatesSenate rejects the Treaty of Versailles, and the League covenant that was attached to it, and so UnitedStates in fact never joins the League of Nations.
BRIAN: How much did Wilson’s vision shape American foreign policy in the century that has followed?
EREZ MANELA: Oh, I think it’s shaped American foreign policy and American posture in the world, to avery great degree. If we look at Franklin Roosevelt– I see Roosevelt as a convinced Wilsonian whobelieves, in the Second World War, that Wilson had it right in terms of the general principles, butbungled the implementation because he was a less than perfect politician.
And Roosevelt, I think, sets out to implement the Wilsonian vision, if you will, but to do it right. So hereconstitutes the League of Nations as the United Nations, and that system that Wilson put in place isnot only not discarded, it’s in fact bolstered and developed into the United Nations system that we havetoday– the United Nations Security Council, the General Assembly, and all of the various otherorganizations, like UNESCO, like the World Health Organization, so on and so forth, that in fact have agreat deal of impact on the lives of people around the world.
And so, in that sense, I think we have to find that Wilson was right. The system that he believed in hasin fact evolved, even if it hasn’t fulfilled all the hopes that he and others have had for it.
BRIAN: Erez, thanks for making Wilsonianism safe for Public Radio. I really appreciate it.
EREZ MANELA: Thanks for having me. It was a great pleasure.
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BRIAN: Erez Manela is a historian at Harvard University. He’s the author of “The Wilsonian Moment.”
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